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<title>Socialization</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Socialization</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the sociological concept. For other uses, see <a href="Socialization_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Socialization (disambiguation)">Socialization (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Key themes</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Society" title="Society">Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li>

<li>Industrial revolutions <a href="Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li>

<li><a href="Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li>

<li><a href="Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li>

<li><a href="Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_peace%2C_war%2C_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li>

<li><a href="Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li>

<li><a href="Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br></li></ul>

<p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br>

</p>

<b>1900s:</b> <a href="Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li>

<li>Terminology</li>

<li><a href="List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li>

<li>By country</li></ul>

</div></div></td>

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<p>In <a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <b>socialization</b> (or <b>socialisation</b>) is the process though which individuals <a href="Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">internalize</a> the <a href="Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">norms</a>, <a href="Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">customs</a>, <a href="Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">values</a> and <a href="Ideology" title="Ideology">ideologies</a> of their <a href="Society" title="Society">society</a>. It involves both learning and teaching and is the primary means of maintaining social and cultural continuity over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Clausen_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clausen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> It is a lifelong process that shapes the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cromdal2006_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cromdal2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Socialization is closely linked to <a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a> and <a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "<a href="Morality" title="Morality">moral</a>"—as regards the society where it occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that <a href="Agency_(sociology)" title="Agency (sociology)">agents</a> are not <a href="Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">blank slates</a> <a href="Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">predetermined by their environment</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and <a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">genes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Genetic studies have shown that a person's <a href="Gene-environment_correlation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene-environment correlation">environment interacts with their genotype</a> to influence behavioral outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History of sociology</a></div>

<p>Notions of <a href="Society" title="Society">society</a> and the <a href="State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a> have existed for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Clausen_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clausen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 20">: 20 </span></sup> In its earliest usages, socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for <a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Martin_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socialization as a concept originated concurrently with sociology, as sociology was defined as the treatment of "the specifically social, the process and forms of socialization, as such, in contrast to the interests and contents which find expression in socialization".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both a cause and an effect of <a href="Social_relation" title="Social relation">association</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but became popular after <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the theory of <a href="Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stages_of_moral_development">Stages of moral development</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development" title="Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development">Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development</a></div>

<p><a href="Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a> studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason situations as right from wrong. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person (typically children) experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions solely reflecting this experience. Second, the conventional stage (typical for adolescents and adults) is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong, even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Finally, the post-conventional stage (more rarely achieved) occurs if a person moves beyond society's norms to consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010108_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010108-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stages_of_psychosocial_development">Stages of psychosocial development</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development" title="Erikson's stages of psychosocial development">Erikson's stages of psychosocial development</a></div>

<p><a href="Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik H. Erikson</a> (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight into life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair.<<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010111_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010111-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept has been further developed by Klaus Hurrelmann and Gudrun Quenzel using the dynamic model of "developmental tasks".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Reciprocal_socialization" title="Reciprocal socialization">Reciprocal socialization</a></div>

<p><a href="George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a> (1863–1931) developed a theory of social <a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a> to explain how social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It is composed of self-awareness and <a href="Self-image" title="Self-image">self-image</a>. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the other's point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term <a href="Looking_glass_self" class="mw-redirect" title="Looking glass self">looking glass self</a>, which means self-image based on how we think others see us. According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference for evaluating others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010109_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010109-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contradictory_evidence_to_behaviorism">Contradictory evidence to behaviorism</h3></div>

<p>Behaviorism makes claims that when infants are born they lack social experience or self. The social pre-wiring hypothesis, on the other hand, shows proof through a scientific study that <a href="Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a> is partly inherited and can influence infants and also even influence foetuses. Wired to be social means that infants are not taught that they are social beings, but they are born as prepared social beings.

</p><p><b>The social pre-wiring hypothesis</b> refers to the <a href="Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">ontogeny</a> of <a href="Social_relation" title="Social relation">social interaction</a>. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social". The theory questions whether there is a propensity to <a href="Social_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social actions">socially oriented action</a> already present <i>before</i> birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique <a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> wiring to be social.<sup id="cite_ref-Wired_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wired-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behavior. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behavior cannot be contributed to any current form of socialization or <a href="Social_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social construction">social construction</a>. Rather, newborns most likely <a href="Heredity" title="Heredity">inherit</a> to some extent social behavior and <a href="Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a> through genetics.<sup id="cite_ref-Wired_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wired-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. Thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins was not accidental but specifically aimed.<sup id="cite_ref-Wired_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wired-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of <a href="Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestation</a>. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions."<sup id="cite_ref-Wired_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wired-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_socialization">Primary socialization</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Primary_socialization" title="Primary socialization">Primary socialization</a></div>

<p>Primary socialization occurs when a <a href="Child" title="Child">child</a> learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the groundwork for all future socialization. It is mainly influenced by immediate family and friends. For example, if a child's mother expresses a <a href="Discriminatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Discriminatory">discriminatory</a> opinion about a minority or majority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about that minority or majority group.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_socialization">Secondary socialization</h3></div>

<p>Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it involves the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are in.<sup id="cite_ref-newportsouthwales.net_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newportsouthwales.net-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schools require very different behavior from the home, and children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them.<sup id="cite_ref-newportsouthwales.net_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newportsouthwales.net-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary socialization is usually associated with teenagers and adults and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. Examples of secondary socialization may include entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment or society.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anticipatory_socialization">Anticipatory socialization</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Anticipatory_socialization" title="Anticipatory socialization">Anticipatory socialization</a></div>

<p>Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a couple might move in together before getting married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living together will be like.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research by Kenneth J. Levine and Cynthia A. Hoffner identifies parents as the main source of anticipatory socialization in regard to jobs and careers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resocialization">Resocialization</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Resocialization" title="Resocialization">Resocialization</a></div>

<p>Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior-patterns and reflexes while accepting new ones as part of a life transition. This can occur throughout the human life-span.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaeferLamm1992113_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaeferLamm1992113-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resocialization can be an intense experience, with individuals experiencing a sharp break with their past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. One common example involves resocialization through a total institution, or "a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff". Resocialization via total institutions involves a two step process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's individual identity; and 2) the staff attempt to create for the inmate a new identity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010120–121_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010120–121-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Other examples include the experiences of a young person leaving home to join the military, or of a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. Another example would be the process by which a <a href="Transsexual" title="Transsexual"> transsexual person</a> learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender-role.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizational_socialization">Organizational socialization</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Onboarding" title="Onboarding">Onboarding</a></div>

<p>Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her role in an organization.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As newcomers become socialized, they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. Acquired knowledge about new employees' future work-environment affects the way they are able to apply their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in pursuing knowledge affects their socialization process.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New employees also learn about their work group, the specific people they will work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions as a <a href="Control_system_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Control system (disambiguation)">control system</a> in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and practices.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_socialization">Group socialization</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">Group dynamics</a></div>

<p>Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, become the primary influence on <a href="Personality" title="Personality">personality</a> and behavior in adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-J_Harris_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J_Harris-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children.<sup id="cite_ref-Maccoby_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maccoby-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than parental figures do.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, twin brothers with an identical genetic heritage will differ in personality because they have different groups of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to genetic differences.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adult's personality.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As much as twenty percent of the variance is due to measurement error.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that only a very small part of an adult's personality is influenced by factors which parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris grants that while siblings do not have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance.<sup id="cite_ref-J_Harris_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J_Harris-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than on interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success.<sup id="cite_ref-J_Harris_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J_Harris-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stages">Stages</h4></div>

<p>Individuals and groups change their evaluations of and commitments to each other over time. There is a predictable sequence of stages that occur as an individual transitions through a group: investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage, the individual and the group evaluate each other, which leads to an increase or decrease in commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective to new, full, marginal, and ex member.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><b>Stage 1: Investigation</b>

This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (<i>reconnaissance</i>), while the group estimates the value of the potential member (<a href="Recruitment_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Recruitment (disambiguation)"><i>recruitment</i></a>). The end of this stage is marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the offer.

</p><p><b>Stage 2: Socialization</b>

Now that the individual has moved from a prospective member to a new member, the recruit must accept the group's culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the group's norms, values, and perspectives (<i>assimilation</i>), and the group may adapt to fit the new member's needs (<i>accommodation</i>). The acceptance transition-point is then reached and the individual becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the group reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other members' reactions in the belief that they will be treated differently as a newcomer.

</p><p><b>Stage 3: Maintenance</b>

During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution is expected of members (<i>role negotiation</i>). While many members remain in this stage until the end of their membership, some individuals may become dissatisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the group's expectations (<i>divergence</i>).

</p><p><b>Stage 4: Resocialization</b>

If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of resocialization: the parties resolve their differences and the individual becomes a full member again (<i>convergence</i>), or the group and the individual part ways via expulsion or voluntary <i>exit</i>.

</p><p><b>Stage 5: Remembrance</b>

In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the group and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the group's <i>tradition</i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_socialization">Gender socialization</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Sociology_of_gender#Gender_and_socialization" title="Sociology of gender">Sociology of gender § Gender and socialization</a>, <a href="Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a>, and <a href="Role_theory" title="Role theory">Role theory</a></div>

<p>Henslin contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined <a href="Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">gender roles</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenslin199976_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenslin199976-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex: boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The behavior that is seen to be appropriate for each gender is largely determined by societal, cultural, and economic values in a given society. Gender socialization can therefore vary considerably among societies with different values. The family is certainly important in reinforcing <a href="Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">gender roles</a>, but so are groups - including friends, peers, school, work, and the <a href="Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a>. <a href="Social_group" title="Social group">Social groups</a> reinforce gender roles through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenslin199976_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenslin199976-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In peer-group activities, <a href="Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypic</a> gender-roles may also be rejected, renegotiated, or artfully exploited for a variety of purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-Cromdal2011_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cromdal2011-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Carol_Gilligan" title="Carol Gilligan">Carol Gilligan</a> compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and moral development. She claimed that boys have a justice perspective - meaning that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilligan1982_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilligan1982-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilligan1990_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilligan1990-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Girls, on the other hand, have a care-and-responsibility perspective, where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation. Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female teachers and most authority figures are men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010109_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010109-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As parents are present in a child's development from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regard to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Sociologist of gender <a href="Raewyn_Connell" title="Raewyn Connell">R.W. Connell</a> contends that socialization theory is "inadequate" for explaining gender, because it presumes a largely consensual process except for a few "deviants", when really most children revolt against pressures to be conventionally gendered; because it cannot explain contradictory "scripts" that come from different socialization agents in the same society, and because it does not account for conflict between the different levels of an individual's gender (and general) identity.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_socialization">Racial socialization</h3></div>

<p>Racial socialization, or <a href="Racial-ethnic_socialization" title="Racial-ethnic socialization">racial-ethnic socialization</a>, has been defined as "the developmental processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an <a href="Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a>, and come to see themselves and others as members of the group".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existing literature conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural socialization, sometimes referred to as "pride development", refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal and should be treated with common humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, white people are socialized to perceive race as a <a href="Zero-sum_game" title="Zero-sum game">zero-sum game</a> and a black-white binary.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oppression_socialization">Oppression socialization</h3></div>

<p>Oppression socialization refers to the process by which "individuals develop understandings of power and political structure, particularly as these inform perceptions of identity, power, and opportunity relative to gender, racialized group membership, and sexuality".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This action is a form of <a href="Political_socialization" title="Political socialization">political socialization</a> in its relation to power and the persistent compliance of the disadvantaged with their oppression using limited "overt coercion".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_socialization">Language socialization</h3></div>

<p>Based on comparative research in different societies, and focusing on the role of language in child development, <a href="Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropologists</a> <a href="Elinor_Ochs" title="Elinor Ochs">Elinor Ochs</a> and <a href="Bambi_Schieffelin" title="Bambi Schieffelin">Bambi Schieffelin</a> have developed the theory of language socialization.<sup id="cite_ref-language_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-language-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

They discovered that the processes of <a href="Enculturation" title="Enculturation">enculturation</a> and socialization do not occur apart from the process of <a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a>, but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Members of all societies socialize children both <i>to</i> and <i>through</i> the use of language; acquiring competence in a language, the novice is by the same token socialized into the categories and norms of the culture, while the culture, in turn, provides the norms of the use of language.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oversocialization">Oversocialization</h3></div>

<p><b>Oversocialization</b> refers to the excess internalization of societal expectations, norms, and values such that a person loses their individuality. Oversocialization operates at both the conscious and unconscious levels, shaping individuals' beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in ways that maintain the status quo. Oversocialization can lead to alienation, disempowerment, and a lack of personal autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Shenghuan_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shenghuan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The term was coined by <a href="Dennis_Wrong" title="Dennis Wrong">Dennis Wrong</a> in 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-Shenghuan_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shenghuan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planned_socialization">Planned socialization</h3></div>

<p>Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others. This type of socialization can take on many forms and can occur at any point from infancy onward.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin_2001_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin_2001-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_socialization">Natural socialization</h3></div>

<p>Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

On the other hand, planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon;<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all through history, people have made plans for teaching or training others.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad qualities: it is useful to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization in order to incorporate them into life in a meaningful way.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_socialization">Digital socialization</h3></div>

<p>Digital socialization refers to the process through which individuals acquire cultural norms, values, and behaviors via digital interactions. Unlike traditional socialization, which primarily occurs through face-to-face interaction, digital socialization takes place in online environments such as <a href="Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> platforms, virtual communities, and other digital communication channels.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Beneficial_aspects">Beneficial aspects</h4></div>

<p>The italian sociologist <a href="Antonio_Casilli" title="Antonio Casilli">Antonio Casilli</a> has examined how digital socialization complements rather than replaces offline interactions. He argues that digital environments create a "hybrid sociability" where online and offline interactions are interconnected. This perspective challenges the assumption that digital communication isolates individuals, instead emphasizing the ways in which people use digital tools to maintain and expand their social networks. He has highlighted how <a href="Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a> is built and maintained through <a href="Digital_platform_(infrastructure)" title="Digital platform (infrastructure)">digital platforms</a>, as individuals engage in online communities that provide both bonding and bridging connections. Digital interactions have also been described as a form of "reciprocal grooming," where sharing content, commenting, and reacting to posts serve as mechanisms for maintaining social ties. <sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The impact of <a href="Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> on socialization has also been widely studied, with findings suggesting that digital platforms influence identity formation, belonging, and community participation. The ability to curate <a href="Digital_identity#Social_aspects" title="Digital identity">digital identities</a> allows individuals to shape their online presence, affecting how they are perceived by others. Digital socialization extends beyond personal relationships to include political engagement, professional networking, and knowledge exchange. As digital interactions become more embedded in daily life, they contribute to the reshaping of social norms and collective behaviors. <sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Moreover, relationship between digital and offline sociability within a cultural community in a mid-sized French city has been examined,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showing that social media, particularly Facebook, does not radically transform social structures but rather reinforces preexisting social divisions. Online interactions, while broadening access to social networks, tend to mirror and consolidate the boundaries already present in offline spaces.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Challenging_aspects">Challenging aspects</h4></div>

<p>Despite its benefits, digital socialization presents certain challenges. <a href="Algorithmic_curation" title="Algorithmic curation">Algorithmic curation</a> plays a central role in shaping digital socialization, offering personalized content but also introducing notable challenges. The rise of algorithm-driven content has been associated with the creation of "<a href="Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">filter bubbles</a>" where individuals are exposed primarily to information that reinforces their existing beliefs. However, some scholars argue that similar mechanisms exist outside the digital sphere, as individuals in physical social environments also tend to surround themselves with like-minded people, reinforcing their existing perspectives. Social structures such as residential segregation, workplace affiliations, and educational institutions contribute to the formation of ideological and cultural bubbles that limit exposure to diverse viewpoints. This phenomenon raises concerns about ideological polarization and the potential narrowing of perspectives. Additionally, <a href="Cyberbullying" title="Cyberbullying">cyberbullying</a> and online harassment have been identified as negative consequences of digital interaction, with some studies linking these experiences to psychological distress and social exclusion. Privacy concerns also play a significant role in discussions about digital socialization, as the collection and use of personal data in digital environments raise ethical questions about surveillance, data security, and the commercialization of social interactions. <sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Others have examined the impact of digital technologies on contemporary sociability from a different lens, showing how online platforms redefine social interactions and shape the construction of social ties. While digital tools facilitate communication and strengthen certain social connections, they also reinforce existing social boundaries. Digital sociability is shaped by preexisting social structures, as online interactions often mirror offline inequalities rather than eliminating them. Factors such as socioeconomic status, education, and cultural capital influence individuals' digital socialization experiences. Furthermore, different digital spaces contribute to varying forms of social interaction, from reinforcing close-knit communities to facilitating <a href="Interpersonal_ties#Weak_tie_hypothesis" title="Interpersonal ties">weak-tie</a> networks that provide access to new information and opportunities. <sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_socialization">Political socialization</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Political_socialization" title="Political socialization">Political socialization</a></div>

<p>Socialization produces the economic, social, and political development of any particular country. The nature of the compromise between nature and nurture also determines whether society is good or harmful.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political socialization is described as "the long developmental process by which an infant (even an adult) citizen learns, imbibes and ultimately internalizes the political culture (core political values, beliefs, norms and ideology) of his political system in order to make him a more informed and effective political participant."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A society's political culture is inculcated in its citizens and passed down from one generation to the next as part of the political socialization process. Agents of socialization are thus people, organizations, or institutions that have an impact on how people perceive themselves, behave, or have other orientations. In contemporary democratic government, political parties are the main forces behind political socialization.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Developing nations can transfer agricultural technology and machinery like tractors, harvesters, and agrochemicals to enhance the agricultural sector of the economy through socialization.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_socialization">Positive socialization</h3></div>

<p>Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. Individual humans tend to like the people who fill their social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization occurs when desired behaviors are reinforced with a reward, encouraging the individual to continue exhibiting similar behaviors in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin_2001_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin_2001-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_socialization">Negative socialization</h3></div>

<p>Negative socialization occurs when socialialization agents use punishment, harsh criticisms, or anger to try to "teach us a lesson"; and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin_2001_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin_2001-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization, and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be—especially if we are able to learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, leading to defeated or pessimistic feelings about life.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin_2001_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin_2001-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a> can examplify negative socialization.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions">Institutions</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutions">Institutions</a></div>

<p>In the social sciences, institutions are the <a href="Social_structure" title="Social structure">structures</a> and <a href="Social_mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social mechanism">mechanisms</a> of <a href="Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> and <a href="Cooperation" title="Cooperation">cooperation</a> governing the <a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> of <a href="Individual" title="Individual">individuals</a> within a given human collectivity. Institutions are identified with a <a href="Social_purpose" title="Social purpose">social purpose</a> and permanence, transcending individual <a href="Human" title="Human">human</a> lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of <a href="Social_norm" title="Social norm"> rules</a> governing cooperative human behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Productive_processing_of_reality">Productive processing of reality</h2></div>

<p>From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of <a href="Klaus_Hurrelmann" title="Klaus Hurrelmann">Klaus Hurrelmann</a>. In his book <i>Social Structure and Personality Development</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hurrelmann_1989/2009_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurrelmann_1989/2009-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he develops the model of <i>productive processing of reality</i>. The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's <a href="Personality_development" title="Personality development">personality development</a>. It is the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity".<sup id="cite_ref-Hurrelmann_1989/2009_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurrelmann_1989/2009-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 42">: 42 </span></sup> The process of productive processing of reality is an enduring process throughout the life course.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Acculturation" title="Acculturation">Acculturation</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_enrichment" title="Behavioral enrichment">Behavioral enrichment</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_illiteracy" title="Functional illiteracy">Functional illiteracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li>

<li><a href="Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharing" title="Sharing">Sharing</a></li>

<li><a href="Shyness" title="Shyness">Shyness</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_sink" title="Behavioral sink">Behavioral sink</a></li>

<li><a href="Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialization_of_animals" title="Socialization of animals">Socialization of animals</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li>

<li><a href="Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">Structure and agency</a></li>

<li><a href="TPI-theory" class="mw-redirect" title="TPI-theory">TPI-theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">Value (personal and cultural)</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Clausen-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clausen_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clausen_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) <i>Socialisation and Society</i>, Boston: <a href="Little_Brown_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Brown and Company">Little Brown and Company</a></span>

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010108-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010108_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacionisGerber2010">Macionis & Gerber 2010</a>, p. 108.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010111-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010111_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacionisGerber2010">Macionis & Gerber 2010</a>, p. 111.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurrelmann, Klaus and Quenzel, Gudrun (2019) Developmental Tasks in Adolescence. London/New York: Routledge</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010109-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010109_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacionisGerber2010109_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacionisGerber2010">Macionis & Gerber 2010</a>, p. 109.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-newportsouthwales.net-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newportsouthwales.net_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newportsouthwales.net_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMirjaliliAbariGholizadehYarmohammadian2016" class="citation web cs1">Mirjalili, Seyyed Mohammad Ali; Abari, Ahmad Ali Foroughi; Gholizadeh, Azar; Yarmohammadian, M. Hossein (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309539125">"Analysis the Status of Socialization Variables in the Iran High School Textbooks with Emphasize on Motahari's Thoughts"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plomin, R. (1990). Nature and nurture: An introduction to human behavioral genetics. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-Cromdal2011-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cromdal2011_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCromdal2011" class="citation book cs1">Cromdal, Jakob (2011). "Gender as a practical concern in children's management of play participation". In S.A. Speer and E. Stokoe (ed.). <i>Conversation and Gender</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">296–</span>309.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilligan1990-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilligan1990_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGilligan1990">Gilligan 1990</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGilligan1990 (help)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFConnell1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Raewyn_Connell" title="Raewyn Connell">Connell, R.W.</a> (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genderpowersocie00conn_0"><i>Gender and power: society, the person and sexual politics</i></a></span>. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genderpowersocie00conn_0/page/191">191–94</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0804714303</bdi>.</cite></span>

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</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;">Schieffelin, Bambi B.; Ochs, Elinor (1987). <i>Language Socialization across Cultures</i>. Volume 3 of <i>Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language</i>. Cambridge University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0521339197</bdi>, <bdi>978-0521339193</bdi></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;">Schieffelin, Bambi B. (1990). <i>The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language, Socialization of Kaluli Children</i>. P CUP Archive, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0521386543</bdi>, <bdi>978-0521386548</bdi></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;">Duranti, Alessandro; Ochs, Elinor; Schieffelin, Bambi B. (2011). <i>The Handbook of Language Socialization</i>, Volume 72 of Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1444342886</bdi>, <bdi>978-1444342888</bdi></li></ul></div></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Shenghuan-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shenghuan_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shenghuan_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfQ9EQAAQBAJ&dq=oversocialization&pg=PA1048"><i>The ECPH Encyclopedia of Psychology</i></a>. Springer Nature. 17 July 2025. p. 1048. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-981-97-7874-4</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2001">Baldwin 2001</a>: "Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2001">Baldwin 2001</a>: "Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds)."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2001">Baldwin 2001</a>: "Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon [...]."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2001">Baldwin 2001</a>: "[...] all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2001">Baldwin 2001</a>: "Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives."</span>

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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPacé2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pacé, Serge (2011-01-03). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/lectures/1230">"Antonio A. Casilli, Les liaisons numériques. Vers une nouvelle sociabilité ?"</a></span>. <i>Lectures</i> (in French). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Flectures.1230">10.4000/lectures.1230</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2116-5289">2116-5289</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNguyenLethiais2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nguyen, Godefroy Dang; Lethiais, Virginie (2016-03-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shs.cairn.info/revue-reseaux-2016-1-page-165?lang=fr">"Impact des réseaux sociaux sur la sociabilité:Le cas de Facebook"</a>. <i>Réseaux</i> (in French). <b>195</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">165–</span>195. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fres.195.0165">10.3917/res.195.0165</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0751-7971">0751-7971</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVelkovska2020" class="citation journal cs1">Velkovska, Julia (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353357847">""Sociabilitées Numériques""</a>. <i>Ed. Réseau Canopé</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:1-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAmaechi" class="citation web cs1">Amaechi, Dr (Mrs) Louisa Ngozi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijrhss.org/papers/v8-i8/1.pdf">"Socialization, Genetic Issue in Nigeria and Nation Building"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2023</span>. <q>The economic, social and political development of any given nation is the product of socialization. Society is good or bad also is determined by the nature of nature-nurture compromise.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOdoemelam" class="citation web cs1">Odoemelam, Uche Bright. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/328023596.pdf">"POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION AND NATION BUILDING: THE CASE OF NIGERIA"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Scientific Journal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAmaechi" class="citation web cs1">Amaechi, Dr (Mrs) Louisa Ngozi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijrhss.org/papers/v8-i8/1.pdf">"Socialization, Genetic Issue in Nigeria and Nation Building"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2023</span>. <q>Through socialization process, developing countries like Nigeria can now transfer agricultural technology and equipment like tractor, harvesters, and agro-chemical materials to improve the agricultural sector of Nigerian economy.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2010" class="citation book cs1">Price, Stuart (15 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kOwpAQAAMAAJ"><i>Brute Reality: Structures of Representation in 'The War on Terror'</i></a>. London: Pluto Press. p. 53. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780745320809</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2023</span>. <q>Acts of violence and forms of bullying contribute to the negative socialisation imposed on soldiers, representing an acclimatisation to the production of lethal force; the internalised resentment and anger of the recruit is directed outwards [...].</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Miller, Seumas (21 December 2014) [2007]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/social-institutions/">"Social institutions"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i><a href="The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054">1095-5054</a>. <q>The term, 'social institution' is somewhat unclear both in ordinary language and in the philosophical literature [...]. However, contemporary sociology is somewhat more consistent in its use of the term. Typically, contemporary sociologists use the term to refer to complex social forms that reproduce themselves such as governments, the family, human languages, universities, hospitals, business corporations, and legal systems. A typical definition is that proffered by Jonathan Turner (Turner 1997: 6): 'a complex of positions, roles, norms and values lodged in particular types of social structures and organising relatively stable patterns of human activity with respect to fundamental problems in producing life-sustaining resources, in reproducing individuals, and in sustaining viable societal structures within a given environment.'</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Hurrelmann_1989/2009-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hurrelmann_1989/2009_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hurrelmann_1989/2009_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurrelmann, Klaus (1989, reissued 2009). <i>Social Structure and Personality Development</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurrelmann, Klaus; Bauer, Ullrich (2018). <i>Socialisation During the Life Course</i>. London/New York: Routledge</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Socialization" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Socialization">Socialization</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<ul><li>Bayley, Robert; Schecter, Sandra R. (2003). Multilingual Matters, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1853596353</bdi>, <bdi>978-1853596353</bdi></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBogard2008" class="citation journal cs1">Bogard, Kimber (2008). "Citizenship attitudes and allegiances in diverse youth". <i>Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology</i>. <b>14</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">286–</span>96. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1099-9809.14.4.286">10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.286</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18954164">18954164</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Duff, Patricia A.; Hornberger, Nancy H. (2010). <i>Language Socialization: Encyclopedia of Language and Education</i>, Volume 8. Springer, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9048194660</bdi>, <bdi>978-9048194667</bdi></li>

<li>Kramsch, Claire (2003). <i>Language Acquisition and Language Socialization: Ecological Perspectives – Advances in Applied Linguistics</i>. Continuum International Publishing Group, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0826453724</bdi>, <bdi>978-0826453723</bdi></li>

<li>McQuail, Dennis (2005). <i>McQuail's Mass Communication Theory</i>: Fifth Edition, London: Sage.</li>

<li>Mehan, Hugh (1991). <i>Sociological Foundations Supporting the Study of Cultural Diversity.</i> National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.</li>

<li>White, Graham (1977). <i>Socialisation</i>, London: Longman.</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conformity92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Conformity92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Enforcement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Proscription" title="Proscription">Proscription</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Damnatio_memoriae" title="Damnatio memoriae">Damnatio memoriae</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Dissident" title="Dissident">Dissident</a> / <a href="Dissenter" title="Dissenter">Dissenter</a></li>

<li><a href="Exile" title="Exile">Exile</a>

<ul><li><a href="%C3%89migr%C3%A9" title="Émigré">Émigré</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">Homo sacer</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Blacklisting" title="Blacklisting">Blacklisting</a></li>

<li><a href="Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Deplatforming" title="Deplatforming">Deplatforming</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li>

<li><a href="Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a>

<ul><li><a href="Civil_death" title="Civil death">Civil death</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Vogelfrei" title="Vogelfrei">Vogelfrei</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Persona_non_grata" title="Persona non grata">Persona non grata</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Public_enemy" title="Public enemy">Public enemy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li>

<li><a href="Enemy_of_the_state" title="Enemy of the state">Enemy of the state</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li>

<li><a href="Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governmental pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Harmonisation_of_law" title="Harmonisation of law">Harmonisation of law</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="National_conservatism" title="National conservatism">National conservatism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Brainwashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Closure_(sociology)" title="Closure (sociology)">Closure (sociology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Consensus_reality" title="Consensus reality">Consensus reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">Culture shock</a></li>

<li><a href="Dogma" title="Dogma">Dogma</a></li>

<li><a href="Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li>

<li><a href="False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Fear_of_missing_out" title="Fear of missing out">Fear of missing out</a></li>

<li><a href="Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li>

<li><a href="Hazing" title="Hazing">Hazing</a></li>

<li><a href="Herd_mentality" title="Herd mentality">Herd mentality</a></li>

<li><a href="Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification (psychology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li>

<li><a href="Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li>

<li><a href="Normalization_(sociology)" title="Normalization (sociology)">Normalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li>

<li><a href="Passing_(sociology)" title="Passing (sociology)">Passing (sociology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li>

<li><a href="Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li>

<li><a href="Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a></li>

<li><a href="Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychosocial" title="Psychosocial">Psychosocial issue</a></li>

<li><a href="Purity_spiral" title="Purity spiral">Purity spiral</a></li>

<li><a href="Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a></li>

<li><a href="Rally_'round_the_flag_effect" title="Rally 'round the flag effect">Rally 'round the flag effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Behavioral_addiction" title="Behavioral addiction">Addiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_contagion" title="Behavioral contagion">Behavioral</a>

<ul><li><a href="Crime_contagion_model" title="Crime contagion model">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Hysterical_contagion" title="Hysterical contagion">Hysterical</a></li>

<li><a href="Copycat_suicide" title="Copycat suicide">Suicide</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">Emotional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a></li>

<li><a href="Teasing" title="Teasing">Teasing</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxic_positivity" title="Toxic positivity">Toxic positivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Authoritarian_personality" title="Authoritarian personality">Authoritarian personality</a>

<ul><li><a href="Authoritarian_leadership_style" title="Authoritarian leadership style">Authoritarian leadership style</a></li>

<li><a href="Right-wing_authoritarianism" title="Right-wing authoritarianism">Right-wing authoritarianism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Control_freak" title="Control freak">Control freak</a></li>

<li><a href="Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder">Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conformity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Compliance_(psychology)" title="Compliance (psychology)">Compliance</a></li>

<li><a href="Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li>

<li><a href="Countersignaling" title="Countersignaling">Countersignaling</a></li>

<li><a href="Creeping_normality" title="Creeping normality">Creeping normality</a></li>

<li><a href="Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">Internalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Normalization_of_deviance" title="Normalization of deviance">Normalization of deviance</a></li>

<li><a href="Obedience" title="Obedience">Obedience</a></li>

<li><a href="Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asch_conformity_experiments" title="Asch conformity experiments">Asch conformity experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="Breaching_experiment" title="Breaching experiment">Breaching experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Anticonformity_(psychology)" title="Anticonformity (psychology)">Anticonformity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">Anti-social behaviour</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-segregation" title="Self-segregation">Self-segregation</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li>

<li><a href="Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li>

<li><a href="Devil's_advocate" title="Devil's advocate">Devil's advocate</a></li>

<li><a href="Dissent" title="Dissent">Dissent</a> / <a href="Defection" title="Defection">Defection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">Political</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eccentricity_(behavior)" title="Eccentricity (behavior)">Eccentricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermit</a></li>

<li><a href="Idiosyncrasy" title="Idiosyncrasy">Idiosyncrasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Insubordination" title="Insubordination">Insubordination</a></li>

<li><a href="Pueblo_clown" title="Pueblo clown">Pueblo clown</a></li>

<li><a href="Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li>

<li><a href="Shock_value" title="Shock value">Shock value</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br>processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li>

<li><a href="Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li>

<li><a href="Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inbreeding_avoidance" title="Inbreeding avoidance">Inbreeding avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Kin_recognition" title="Kin recognition">Kin recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li>

<li><a href="Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li>

<li><a href="Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Species-typical_behavior" title="Species-typical behavior">Species-typical behavior</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br><a href="Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a>

<ul><li><a href="Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li>

<li><a href="Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptive_unconscious" title="Adaptive unconscious">Adaptive unconscious</a>/<a href="Unconscious_cognition" title="Unconscious cognition">Unconscious cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_specialization" title="Cognitive specialization">Cognitive specialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a>/<a href="Domain-specific_learning" title="Domain-specific learning">learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a>

<ul><li><a href="Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_cognition" title="Numerical cognition">Numerical cognition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Number_sense" title="Number sense">Number sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Approximate_number_system" title="Approximate number system">Approximate number system</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_individuation_system" title="Parallel individuation system">Parallel individuation system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a>

<ul><li><a href="Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li>

<li><a href="Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br><a href="Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li>

<li><a href="Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li>

<li><a href="Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li>

<li><a href="Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a>

<ul><li><a href="Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li>

<li><a href="Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li>

<li><a href="Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li>

<li><a href="Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">Incest taboo</a>

<ul><li><a href="Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li>

<li><a href="Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li>

<li><a href="Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal</a>/<a href="Comparative_cognition" title="Comparative cognition">comparative cognition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_training" title="Animal training">Animal training</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal-made_art" title="Animal-made art">Animal-made art</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">Cognitive bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="G_factor_in_non-humans" title="G factor in non-humans"><i>g</i> factor in non-humans</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Number_sense_in_animals" title="Number sense in animals">Number sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_mind_in_animals" title="Theory of mind in animals">Theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisher's_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>/<a href="Acquired_characteristic" title="Acquired characteristic">acquired characteristics</a></li>

<li><a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a></li>

<li><a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Species" title="Species">Species</a></li>

<li><a href="Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><b><a href="List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Evolutionary psychology</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185467#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1492" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185467#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1492" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1123768">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4055783-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85124152">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933278p">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933278p">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571865">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="socializace"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph137463&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000057794&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007553404305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/9c74d95e-6d9d-4872-b78d-bee6cee81dbb">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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